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Petrels, shearwaters and albatrosses of Peru: the birds that live on the wind of the Humboldt Current

These are birds that spend most of their lives on the open sea and, for the most part, breed far from Peru. The Humboldt Current, cold and rich in food, draws them from the islands of New Zealand, the South Atlantic and the Galápagos. The guide includes 31 species of the order Procellariiformes.

Published

A waved albatross in flight over a rocky shore, with a yellow bill and dark outstretched wings.
Phoebastria irrorata · Española Island, Galápagos, Ecuador, July 2025. · Photo: E bailey · CC BY-SA 4.0

A group built for the open sea

Phoebastria irrorata is an albatross of the family Diomedeidae, described by Salvin in 1883.1 Pterodroma phaeopygia is a petrel of the family Procellariidae, described by Salvin in 1876.2 At the other end of the size range, seven adults of Oceanodroma tethys measured on Chao and Corcovado islands weighed 23 g on average.3 Among the giant petrels, males weigh around 20 % more than females, the greatest size difference between the sexes of any seabird.4

In the Peru Current, within a band up to 370 km from the coast between 3° S and 50° S, 2299 individuals of Procellaria aequinoctialis were counted on 14 cruises made from 1980 to 1995.5 That species belongs to the set of Antarctic and sub-Antarctic birds that move north outside their breeding season and keep to the colder waters.5 In winter it is joined by Thalassarche melanophris, Thalassarche salvini, Fulmarus glacialoides and Daption capense, which eat mostly carrion or prey caught at the surface.5 Others never leave the current: Oceanodroma hornbyi is restricted to its cold waters, from northern Ecuador to central Chile.6

Albatrosses: the ones that cross the Pacific

Nearly all of Phoebastria irrorata breeds on Española Island in the Galápagos, and a few pairs breed on Isla de la Plata, near the mainland; while incubating and raising larger chicks, adults travel to feed in the coastal upwelling off Peru.7 In 2008, all long trips by birds tracked from Española and La Plata ended on the Peruvian coast, and the southernmost latitude reached had a median of 7.18° S in birds from Punta Cevallos.7 The La Plata colony, of 10 to 20 pairs, lies about 850 km from the Peruvian upwelling.7

Thalassarche salvini breeds almost exclusively in New Zealand: for 2013 the population was put at 39995 pairs, 99 % of them in the Bounty Islands.8 Outside the breeding season many cross the Pacific: on 15 cruises made off Chile and Peru between 1980 and 1995, 475 individuals were logged, spread along the current system and favouring waters over the continental slope.9

A Salvin's albatross resting on the water, with a grey head, brown back, white breast and a pale grey bill with a yellow ridge.
Thalassarche salvini · East of the Tasman Peninsula, Tasmania, Australia, February 2012. · Photo: JJ Harrison ( https://www.jjharrison.com.au/ ) · CC BY-SA 3.0

As a breeding bird, Thalassarche bulleri is confined to the New Zealand region.10 The northern form nests in the Chathams, where 19400 pairs were estimated in 2016.11 Followed with geolocators, those birds reached Chilean and Peruvian waters between March and July and left them between August and October.12 Thalassarche eremita breeds only on The Pyramid, the southernmost islet of the Chathams, with about 4500 pairs each year.13 Three adults tracked by satellite in 1997 and 1998 moved between 26° S and 6° S along the South American coast.14

A Buller's albatross in flight seen from above, with a pale grey head, long dark wings and a yellow-edged bill.
Thalassarche bulleri · East of the Tasman Peninsula, Tasmania, Australia, February 2012. · Photo: JJ Harrison ( https://www.jjharrison.com.au/ ) · CC BY-SA 3.0

Thalassarche melanophris breeds on several islands of southern Chile, on the Falklands and on South Georgia, among others.15 Censuses from 2001 to 2006 added up to at least 122920 pairs at 6 sites in Chile, a little over 20 % of the world population.16 By contrast, for Peru Thalassarche chrysostoma is only a non-breeding visitor with scarce records, according to the country's Red Book of threatened wildlife.17

A black-browed albatross resting on the water, with a white head, a dark brow and a yellow-orange bill.
Thalassarche melanophris · East of the Tasman Peninsula, Tasmania, Australia, September 2011. · Photo: JJ Harrison ( https://www.jjharrison.com.au/ ) · CC BY-SA 3.0
A grey-headed albatross resting on dark waves, with a grey head and a black bill with a yellow stripe along the top and a pink tip.
Thalassarche chrysostoma · East of the Tasman Peninsula, Tasmania, Australia, May 2012. · Photo: JJ Harrison ( https://www.jjharrison.com.au/ ) · CC BY-SA 3.0

Petrels, shearwaters and fulmars

Procellaria aequinoctialis breeds on sub-Antarctic islands of France, New Zealand and South Africa, as well as South Georgia and the Falkland Islands (Malvinas).18 Two birds from South Georgia, followed with geolocators, spent midwinter in the Humboldt Current off Chile and went straight back to the colony from there.19 Procellaria parkinsoni is the smallest member of its genus and the one that breeds farthest north.20 On 28 cruises in the eastern tropical Pacific from 1976 to 1990, 618 birds were recorded close to shore from southern Mexico to northern Peru, and their southern limit on the mainland coast lay near 5° S.21

A white-chinned petrel swimming, with dark brown plumage and a pale ivory bill with a white patch at its base.
Procellaria aequinoctialis · Off Kaikoura, New Zealand, February 2007. · Photo: Mjobling · CC BY 3.0

Pterodroma phaeopygia is endemic to the Galápagos archipelago and breeds only in the highlands of 5 islands.22 One of the adults tracked by satellite while breeding entered the far northern edge of Peru's exclusive economic zone.22 In Pterodroma cookii, birds from Little Barrier move north to the North Pacific, while those from Codfish follow the Humboldt Current to their main non-breeding area off Peru, at about 15° S, which they reached after about 19 days of travel.23 That Codfish population is the smaller one: about 6000 pairs, against about 286,000 on Little Barrier.24

Pterodroma externa breeds only on Alejandro Selkirk Island, in the Juan Fernández archipelago.25 Seven birds carrying geolocators, followed from 2020 to 2022, travelled as far as 5781 km from the colony before laying, in waters of the south-eastern Pacific.26 Pterodroma defilippiana has colonies on San Félix and San Ambrosio, in the Desventuradas, and on Santa Clara and Robinson Crusoe, in Juan Fernández; at sea it is found off Peru and northern and central Chile.15 Two subspecies of Pterodroma neglecta are distinguished: the nominate form nests in the south-west Pacific and Pterodroma neglecta juana on San Ambrosio, in the eastern Pacific.27

Ardenna creatopus breeds on only 3 islands of central Chile: at least 70 % of the population nests on Mocha, up to 20 % on Robinson Crusoe and up to 10 % on Santa Clara, and the world population is put at about 60,000 birds.28 Puffinus griseus breeds in New Zealand, Australia and Chile.29 According to the authors, much of the population migrates to the North Pacific after breeding in the austral summer, which would explain its highest counts in the Peruvian autumn and winter censuses.29 The only known breeding place of Puffinus bulleri is the Poor Knights Islands in New Zealand, and around 1981 the world population was roughly 2,500,000 birds.30

Macronectes giganteus breeds right around the Southern Ocean; in Chile the best-known colony is Isla Noir, where counts from 2003 to 2013 added up to about 1756 breeding pairs.31 Macronectes halli has its largest colony on South Georgia, with 15398 pairs, over 70 % of the world total.32 The first published report of the species in Peruvian waters describes 7 juveniles seen in July and August 2004 near Punta San Juan, the port of Ilo and La Vieja island.33 Daption capense has a circumpolar distribution and breeds on mainland Antarctica and on numerous Antarctic and sub-Antarctic islands.34 Fulmarus glacialoides has been studied at Antarctic colonies; on Peter I Island, 3500 to 4500 breeding pairs were estimated in January 2022.35 Pachyptila belcheri breeds on the Falkland Islands and on Kerguelen, and since 1984 a colony has also been known on Isla Noir in southern Chile.3637

A Cape petrel in flight seen from below, with chequered black and white plumage and dark wing edges.
Daption capense · East of the Tasman Peninsula, Tasmania, Australia, September 2011. · Photo: JJ Harrison ( https://www.jjharrison.com.au/ ) · CC BY-SA 3.0
A southern fulmar in flight seen from above, pale grey, with dark wingtips and a pink bill with a dark tip.
Fulmarus glacialoides · East of the Tasman Peninsula, Tasmania, Australia, May 2012. · Photo: JJ Harrison ( https://www.jjharrison.com.au/ ) · CC BY-SA 3.0

Storm-petrels and the Peruvian diving petrel

Oceanodroma tethys is a species of the tropical eastern Pacific, recorded at sea from Baja California Sur down to northern Chile.38 The nominate subspecies breeds in the Galápagos and ranges north over oceanic waters; kelsalli breeds in Peru and moves from Mexico to Chile over the continental shelf.38 Two new breeding localities were described on Chao and Corcovado islands, where there are no large colonies of guano birds and no guano has been taken for more than 20 years.3

A dark storm-petrel flying over a grey-blue sea, with the white patch at the base of its tail visible.
Oceanodroma tethys · Photograph of 11 February 2013 titled "Galapagos storm petrel"; the Commons page gives no exact place. · Photo: Brian Gratwicke · CC BY 2.0

Oceanodroma markhami is a storm-petrel of 21 to 23 cm that lives mainly over tropical waters of the eastern Pacific, between 5° N and 29.9° S.39 In October 2022 a breeding site was found at Pampa Pie de Candela, in Tacna, 11.5 km from the coast at about 160 m elevation, with 15 nests and an estimated 30 pairs.40 Oceanodroma microsoma breeds in Mexico, and in Peru it arrives as a non-breeding boreal migrant regarded as uncommon, with records from November to March.41 Oceanodroma melania, according to an IMARPE study, ranges from Panama to at least 8° S.42 Oceanites gracilis is known from the coastal zones of the Pacific from southern Colombia, through Ecuador and Peru, to central Chile.43

Oceanites oceanicus is a trans-equatorial migrant: the nominate form spends the austral winter in the North Atlantic and North Pacific, while there are no confirmed records of that form from the Humboldt Current, where all specimens are attributed to the Chilean form.44 Pelagodroma marina is a bird of temperate and tropical waters of the Atlantic, Indian and Pacific Oceans.45 Fregetta grallaria breeds in the Pacific and the South Atlantic: the nominate form on Lord Howe and in the Kermadec Islands, with about 2000 pairs, and another population, a few hundred pairs by nest counts, in Juan Fernández and the Desventuradas.46

A dark storm-petrel with its wings raised and its feet touching the water surface, showing the white patch above the tail.
Oceanites oceanicus · East of the Tasman Peninsula, Tasmania, Australia, March 2012. · Photo: JJ Harrison ( https://www.jjharrison.com.au/ ) · CC BY-SA 3.0
A storm-petrel in flight, with a dark body, white belly and tail base, and one wing raised.
Fregetta grallaria · Lord Howe Island, Australia, 26 March 2013. · Photo: Danmantle · CC BY-SA 3.0

Pelecanoides garnotii is a small, compact seabird: 46 birds weighed on Choros Island, Chile, gave a mean mass of 220 g.47 Underwater it propels itself with its wings, as penguins do, and not with its feet, as cormorants do.48 In the early twentieth century it was documented from Lobos de Tierra Island, at 6° S in Peru, to Chiloé, at 42° S in Chile.49 A 2019 study counted only 7 active breeding sites, and in Peru the islands of San Gallán and La Vieja together hold 12,000 to 13,000 pairs.49

How to tell them apart

Among the albatrosses, an adult of Thalassarche salvini seen off Argentine Patagonia had a grey head, mantle and back, a pale grey crown and chin, a white rump and underside, black upperwings, and a pale grey bill with a yellow ridge and a blackish tip to the lower mandible.50 In Thalassarche bulleri, the head of the southern form is a pale greyish brown, like that of Thalassarche salvini, while in the northern form the silvery cap covers only the front of the forehead and crown and behind the eye the head is dark grey, close to that of Thalassarche eremita.12 The two forms are so alike in measurements and plumage that telling them apart at sea is hard.12 A bird seen in 1988 off Chiclayo had a straw-coloured bill with a dark tip on both mandibles, a feature that set Thalassarche eremita apart from the other albatrosses of the Thalassarche cauta group.51

Procellaria aequinoctialis is the largest of the petrels that nest in burrows.52 Its white chin patch is highly variable.53 Compared with it, Procellaria parkinsoni shows a rounder head and wings projecting farther beyond the tail when it sits on the water.54 The plumage of Procellaria parkinsoni is a brownish black all over, and the bill has sharply defined black tips on both mandibles.55 Macronectes halli is separated from its sister species by the horny plate at the bill tip, which is reddish at every age.56 Macronectes giganteus, by contrast, has two plumage phases, one white apart from a few scattered black feathers and one dark.57 Pterodroma externa is about 43 cm long, with a grey-brown cap, a silvery-grey back and a dark M drawn across the back from wingtip to wingtip.25

In Oceanodroma tethys the white covers more than half the length of the tail, and the webbing between the toes is black, not yellow as in Oceanites oceanicus.38 Oceanodroma markhami is dark almost throughout, with a conspicuous diagonal band across the upper side of each wing and a forked tail.58 In the Peruvian diving petrel, Pelecanoides garnotii, the palatine bones of the skull almost meet along the midline, whereas in Pelecanoides urinatrix and Pelecanoides georgicus they stay apart.48

Where and when they are recorded in Peru

In the Peru Current, the mean density of Procellaria aequinoctialis was 30.7 birds per 100 km² in summer and 55.8 in winter.5 Off southern Peru it was the most numerous bird around the small-scale boats that fish for Humboldt squid (Dosidicus gigas), with 181 of the 300 birds recorded, 60.3 %.59 In two surveys off Peru in 2019, the presence of Thalassarche salvini overlapped in space with that of cephalopods and was linked to warmer, saltier water, lower latitudes and lesser depth.60 In autumn 2019, a first-year Thalassarche eremita was photographed 98 km off Punta Caballas.61

On three IMARPE pelagic resource assessment cruises in 2019, Oceanodroma markhami was seen off the whole Peruvian coast, with most sightings beyond the continental shelf.42 In summer it gathered between Chimbote and Pisco, and in autumn between Atico and the Chilean border.42 There were 57 records of Pelecanoides garnotii at sea off Peru between 2005 and 2010, from Sechura to Cañete, in groups of 1 to 10 birds 6.1 to 51 km from shore.62 For Oceanodroma microsoma, the known Peruvian records come only from the far north, between Tumbes and Lambayeque.41

Feeding at sea: discards, dolphins and anchovetas

Around the small-scale Humboldt squid boats in southern Peru, close to 17 % of all birds observed fed on fishery discards.59 Thalassarche salvini did so in 27 % of cases.59 On boats of the jumbo squid and shark longline fisheries, Thalassarche eremita ate discarded viscera in 37 % of cases, the liver above all.61 Beside an artisanal shark longliner, the northern form of Thalassarche bulleri reached the offal after Procellaria aequinoctialis and Thalassarche melanophris, and had to fight the latter for food.15

Procellaria parkinsoni follows dolphins: 469 of the 618 birds recorded in the eastern tropical Pacific, 76 %, were with herds of 10 dolphin species.21 It kept away from the large flocks that feed with tunas and with Stenella attenuata and Stenella longirostris.21 The authors concluded that it dives to retrieve scraps of large prey that those dolphins tear apart below the surface.21

Pelecanoides garnotii is a remarkable diver: in 22 adults the mean maximum depth was 31.6 m and the deepest dive reached 83.1 m.63 In 118 stomach samples from La Vieja Island, the main prey by mass were the anchoveta Engraulis ringens (33.9 %), the krill Euphausia mucronata (26.8 %) and the squat lobster Pleuroncodes monodon (24.3 %).64 The anchovetas it ate averaged 45.9 mm, far below the minimum commercial size of 120 mm.64

Breeding elsewhere

On Española Island, studied in 1970 and 1971, incubation in the waved albatross lasted 60 days on average and raising the chick to its first flight took 167 days.65 The species keeps no stable nest site: adults shift the egg over long stretches, which causes many losses.65

The Bounty Islands, where Thalassarche salvini nests, lie 760 km east of New Zealand and are 22 outcrops of bare granite totalling 135 ha.66 The Pyramid, home of Thalassarche eremita, is an islet of 1.7 ha rising 174 m.13 It lies 870 km east of mainland New Zealand and is almost inaccessible.14 In the Kermadecs, Pterodroma neglecta has nests confirmed on four of the southern islands, with probably fewer than 50 pairs in all.67

Prion wrecks on the Pacific coast of South America appear to be an annual winter event: on 7 July 1968 more than 50,000 prions were estimated in 4 hours of observation at Rinconada, Antofagasta.37 The 8 dead birds examined had no fat and empty or nearly empty stomachs.37

Conservation status and threats

The IUCN Red List classifies Phoebastria irrorata and Pterodroma phaeopygia as Critically Endangered.6869 The Peruvian list approved in 2014 also places them in that category and prohibits hunting, capture, possession, trade, transport and export for commercial purposes.70 The two lists do not always agree on the other species: Thalassarche eremita is Vulnerable for the IUCN and Critically Endangered in Peru.7170 Thalassarche melanophris is Least Concern for the IUCN and Endangered in Peru.7270 Pelecanoides garnotii is Near Threatened for the IUCN and Vulnerable in Peru, and since 2002 it has been listed in Appendix I of the Convention on Migratory Species.7374

The two giant petrels are Least Concern for the IUCN and Near Threatened on the Peruvian list.757670 Procellaria aequinoctialis and Thalassarche salvini are Vulnerable both for the IUCN and on the Peruvian list.777870

Procellaria aequinoctialis is the seabird killed in greatest numbers on longlines in the Southern Ocean.79 Of the 78 birds of Procellaria parkinsoni caught in New Zealand waters between 2002 and 2013, 96.2 % were taken on longlines.80 On South Georgia, the number of breeding pairs of Thalassarche melanophris in the study colonies on Bird Island fell from 607 in 1990 to 202 in 2012, and demersal longline fishing effort was associated with lower adult survival.81

On Española, the 2007 census counted 6045 pairs of Phoebastria irrorata, 88.1 % of the 6857 of 2001.82 According to the authors, the death of adults in Peru's artisanal fishery remains the most convincing explanation for that decline, while plastic looks like a minor threat: only 3 of 43 dead birds examined in 2007 (7.0 %) had any in the proventriculus.82

On San Cristóbal, in 2002 and 2003, only 23.6 % of breeding attempts of Pterodroma phaeopygia ended in success, and rats, which took both eggs and chicks, caused 72.2 % of failures.83 In the colonies of Ardenna creatopus, the regular presence of cats, rats, rabbits and cattle is a serious threat, and neither Mocha nor Robinson Crusoe has a biosecurity system.28 The Raoul Island population of Pterodroma neglecta was essentially extinct by 1966 owing to predation by introduced cats and rats.84 In Pelecanoides garnotii, guano extraction removed the substrate in which it dug its nests, and guano workers and fishers took birds and eggs.8562

On land, artificial light is the best-documented threat in Peru for Oceanodroma hornbyi: SERFOR explains that intense lighting disrupts the birds' navigation and can cause disorientation, momentary blindness and collisions with buildings, poles and vehicles.86 The breeding areas of Oceanodroma markhami in the desert sector of Cerro Lechuza, in the Paracas National Reserve, lie within a strict protection zone of the 2025-2030 Master Plan.87 For Puffinus griseus, adult birds found dead on beaches of northern New Zealand between 1961 and 1999 declined by 64.4 % and fledglings by 77.7 %.88

For Pterodroma phaeopygia the figures do not agree either: there were optimistic estimates of up to 100,000 pairs in the Galápagos, and in 1991 the authors noted that recent research pointed to about 7500 breeding pairs as the more likely figure.89

What is still unknown

The lack of information on Peru's storm-petrels places several species of the group in threat categories on international and national lists.42 Oceanites gracilis is Data Deficient on the IUCN list.90 The IMARPE study includes it among the species with proven breeding sites in Peru and refers to a 2008 paper, but that paper describes a colony of a different species, Oceanodroma tethys kelsalli, on Santa Island.4291

For Oceanodroma tethys kelsalli 800 pairs were known, against offshore estimates of 1,258,700 and 1,451,800 birds of the subspecies, so the authors call for more surveys of nesting areas.91 In 2008 they also noted that the Peruvian state did not protect it for lack of information.91 Access to the Desventuradas Islands, where Pterodroma defilippiana breeds, is fully restricted because of a Chilean Navy base, and no systematic study of their birds has been made since the 1960s.92

For Oceanodroma microsoma, the author calls for regular monitoring of seabirds in coastal waters to understand the movements of these little-known birds.41 And for the prion wrecks, the cause is still unknown in Chile and Peru.37

The species in this article

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